Wednesday, July 31, 2019

Advertising Uses Essay

Advertising: Information tool, manipulation tool, or Beyond? The impact of advertising in our society is a fiercely debated topic, and has been ever since its conception in its most basic form. Advertisers make their ads stand out by using humor, ongoing story lines, unexpected dialogue, unusual techniques, attention-getting spokespersons, or simply by repeating the ads so often that people can’t help but remember them. According to the majority advertising is a form of communication that typically attempts to inform or persuade potential customers to purchase or to consume more of a particular brand of product or service. This is not a surprise, advertisements are everywhere. Society is so used to it that they just see it as a tool for letting others know about a product. The majority sees advertisement as an information tool. Unfortunately advertising doesn’t have that purpose anymore. According to Chuck Blore said: â€Å"Advertising is the art of arresting the human intelligence just long enough to get money from it†. Just until the 1800’s advertising was an information tool, then it became a manipulation tool because of mass production during the industrial revolution. Everything stayed the same until the 21st century. This century had changed the whole concept of advertising, now advertising is something beyond information or manipulation. Advertising is a tool to create costumers (yes, create!). Now publicists create needs, preferences, beliefs, points of views, and everything they need to get money without measuring their acts. Advertisers are changing customers’ true desires instead of selling their products to the ones who needs them. Advertisers create needs. Its not true that every time someone sees a Burger King ad he/she is hungry, its just part of the advertiser’s job. They make every ad incredibly appealing so that everyone who sees it believes that he needs a burger right away, or at least something to eat. Haven’t you noticed that those kinds of ads are always close enough to the respective restaurant, and it’s not just in the food business that advertisers create needs? They do it in every opportunity they have, such as apparels, technology, etc. Advertisers create preferences. They build desires and preferences every time they have to present a product that isn’t for everyone. Advertisers show products as unique and incredible. The costumers believe they need them right away. What advertisers do is create an image of a product that will make costumers buy it without thinking it twice; it will create such a huge desire for that product that costumers will feel the need for buying it even though it can be a product that they wouldn’t be interested before the ad. Advertisers create beliefs and points of view. They do everything for achieve their selling goals; they don’t care about the costumer real desires. Advertising is in such a position that it can make costumers change the way they see themselves, the way they see others, and they way they feel about their lives. In this case there are examples such as all the commercials with models that make costumers feel insecure with their bodies (no matter the gender). Also ads that insist with the idea of getting thinner with machines or pills â€Å"without doing exercise† making costumers believe that everything works. Advertisers create perceived difference and make them feel that a particular product is different. Most of the time the difference is simply the audience the company wants to target. Unfortunately one of the biggest consequences of abusive advertisement is that most of the advertisers are targeting kids affecting their way of thinking and all their interests. Kids fourteen and under spend an estimated $20 billion a year and influence purchases by parents, grandparents, and others to the tune of $200 billion a year. As a result, advertisers spend big bucks to reach kids: an estimated $800 million for programs alone. Experts say that children are particularly vulnerable to the persuasive effects of advertising, especially television commercials. â€Å"Kids are the most pure consumers you could have,† says Debra McMahon, a vice-president at Mercer Management Consulting. â€Å"They tend to interpret your ad literally. They are infinitely open.† The child as in-house salesperson is a powerful friend to advertisers. Because of this, some advertisers are very concerned with the society, because a lot of advertisers are just trying to sell the product witho ut limits. They don’t think about the audience that can see their ads. Advertising has become really intense during the past years. They are trying to sell their products or services without a limit, without respecting the costumers. It should be controlled, definitely. Advertising, too, should be held to the truth, as many people take it at face value and ingenuously believe all or most of what is said. That’s why there are associations promoting responsible advertising like the International Advertising Association (IAA) and Advertising Educational Foundation. Also there are advertising ethics that are being discussed, ethics that should be present when an ad comes out for the rest of the world. Advertising should be more socially responsible, because advertising is just one of the most important social influences in a capitalistic economy, like ours. And using media as its vehicle is a pervasive, powerful force shaping attitudes and behavior in today’s world. As the media grows, the number of advertisements increases everyday and it plays a substantial role in people’s life because we are bombarded with thousands of advertising messages daily. The industry should concentrate more on the advertising ethics, and how to satisfy the consumers, instead of manipulating the consumer into buying their product, misinforming, tricking people for their own financial gain and creating negative social impacts. Advertising must be truthful, not misleading, ambiguous, or make wrong factual claims that can get consumers to buy inferior products thinking these products can deliver more. Advertising should be creative, and who says you can’t direct your creative abilities towards projects that aim to do good? Advertising should be responsible, so that it helps to contribute a positive effect on our society and the environment. I do not wish to see advertising eliminated from the contemporary world, because it is an important element in today’s society, especially in the functioning of a market economy, which is becoming more and more widespread. I do wish that the world of advertising change and can be limited to be used as an information tool, not manipulation or â€Å"beyond that†, and hopefully in the future we’ll have the chance to see on magazines, billboards and TVs ethical and responsible ads, because as Chris Moore said once â€Å"Advertisers are in the busi ness of communicating with thousands, even millions, of â€Å"others† all the time. That gives us thousands or millions of chances to practice what we believe every day. And try to get it right†. References Day, Nancy. Advertising: Information or manipulation? Enslow Publisher, 1999. Scivicque, Christine. December de 2007. February de 2011.

America during the 1930s Essay

An essay to show how the novel, â€Å"Of Mice and Men† by John Steinbeck, relates to how life was like in America during the 1930s. â€Å"Of Mice and Men† is a short novel written by John Steinbeck. It gives us a good idea of certain aspects of the depression, which was a period of time where there were too few jobs to go round for each of the American people during the 1930s. Aspects such as the conditions ranch workers would have faced domestically and at work, if they had a job. This period in time had a large effect on the way a person was perceived by those around them. These problems were made perfectly clear in â€Å"Of mice and Men†:~ When analysed, loneliness is probably the most distinctive issue that stands out among all of the problems that were present at the time of the depression. There were no such things as companionship, friendship or family, because life was always so unpredictable, and many people would spend years travelling from ranch to ranch in search of the same work. Due to this fierce competition, relationships between ranch workers were often shallow and the majority would end soon after a worker had left that particular ranch. This is conveyed well in Steinbeck’s novel, as many things relate to this major factor of loneliness. I think this is one of the most important aspects of the novel, which is probably why there are so many things that refer to loneliness as a problem. A good example of this includes the ranches’ name- Soledad, as in solitary, meaning lonely. Another good example of this is the name of the river near the ranch- The Solenis, and when George plays solitaire in the bunkhouse during chapter two. Life was similarly hard for everyone on the ranch, though it was made even more difficult due to sexism, racism and in certain circumstances, disabilities. Certain people on the ranch including Lennie- who had mental difficulties, Crooks- who, not only had been crippled by a horse, but was coloured (this was still large issue in the 1930s), and Curley’s wife purely for being a woman- were even fighting among themselves to gain respect. This was done merely to boost their own confidence Fortunately this was not the case for George and Lennie, as they had each other for company, though this seemed to be quite suspicious, as it was a very rare occurrence. ity of the workers travelled alone across America, moving from ranch to ranch. Family values were non-existent, because of this they didn’t belong anywhere. The workers believed it was survival of the fittest between them. There were a large number of drifting workers, all-looking for the same jobs. Competition for work was fierce. There was a general feeling of loneliness at the time for the workers. George emphasizes this feeling when he is talking to Lennie by the brush: ‘Guys like us, which work on ranches, are the loneliest guys in the world. They got no family. They don’t belong no place. ‘ Because of a vast amount of suspicion on the ranch the workers often chose a solitary existence. It also made relationships between the workers very shallow. It would seem that the majority of the workers could not forge a meaningful relationship. OuGeQ6K ffra Yet, it wasn’t just the workers who felt lonely. Curley’s wife also displays loneliness: ‘I get awful lonely’†¦ ‘You can talk to people, but I can’t talk to nobody but Curley. ‘ Crooks also seems very lonely: ‘I tell ya a guy gets too lonely, an’ he gets sick. ‘ Both Crooks and Curley’s wife also choose a life of solitude because of the suspicion. It is harder for them to establish meaningful relationships because the obstacles of discrimination and sexism that exists on the ranch.

Tuesday, July 30, 2019

World Religions: Buddhism and Christianity

This roadmap of this paper is chiefly twofold. On the one side of the spectrum, it attempts to make a successful presentation of the fundamental nature and key teachings of Buddhism as a particular religious movement. On the other side of the spectrum, this paper hopes to make an equally successful juxtaposition of the salient points relative to the similarities and differences between Buddhism and Christianity. The starting point of this essay will be to firstly lay the foundational elements and fundamental characteristics of the Buddhism faith, as a jumping board from where the succeeding discussions shall be drawn. Secondarily, in order to better place the Buddhism’s teachings within the larger purview of religion as a phenomenon, its comparison with Christianity shall comprise a significant part of the discussions as well. In the process, this paper hopes to establish that there is in fact an array of aspects for both religions which, even when on the surface they appear to be wholly distinct, nevertheless share common strains and resemblances, as far as doctrinal beliefs and ethical norms are concerned. This is a concept of no little importance; for history has been a constant witness to the divisive nature of religious pluralism. On a careful analysis, what this paper hopes to ultimately achieve is not to lay judgment on either the correctness or wrongfulness of any doctrine, as it merely wants to appreciate of the distinctness and uniqueness which defines both Buddhism and Christianity, and all world religions for that matter. Fundamental Tenets of Buddhism Buddhism is a religious tradition believed to be already in place around 500 years before the coming of Christ (Griffiths, 1997, p. 5). The exact location of its initial inception and formation is relatively unknown, inasmuch as the exact time of its emergence remains to be fully determined. But many thinkers believe that the religious movement started from the Indian peninsula, only to be dispersed from the neighboring regions later on. An exact definition of Buddhism may be difficult to identify, as a whole array of versions of Buddhism claim origin and affinity from the force which may be called as the chief inspiration of the religion – Gautama Buddha, also known as Gautama Sakayamuni. Far from being a movement characterized by an universal bond of uniformity or structure, Buddhism is one the few religions in the world which readily embrace diversity from its adherents. In fact, Griffiths would claim that one of the most notable uniqueness of Buddhism lies in its â€Å"very differentiated† character (1997, p. 5). To concretely cite the case in point, one may perhaps discover that the version of Buddhism being practiced in, say, South Asia, may differ distinctively from the one being observed in adjacent states, say, the countries found in South-East Asia. By inference, it is therefore not without good reasons to suppose that Buddhism is a religious movement that neither demand nor teach an adherence to a uniform doctrine to all its followers. As hereinabove hinted, Buddhism takes root from the inspiration and teaching left by its recognized founder by the name of Gautama Sakayamuni, who later on, would be called Gautama Buddha by his followers. At the very least, this is precisely the reason why the religion is named after its founder; since Sakayamuni is believed to be the religion’s supreme exemplification of a life marked by total freedom. It is commonly accepted that Gautama Buddha left a host of teaching pertinent to the methods of meditation as a way to attain a totally blissful existence. This state is called Nirvana. Buddhism, it must be mentioned, is largely about an adherence to a kind of life geared towards the search for enlightenment, as did their founder Gautama. Thus, in view of this, Humphrey believes that this particular religion does not chiefly concern itself with the worship of a Transcendent as an accommodation of a particular â€Å"way of life† (1997, p. 13). In many ways, this is yet another glaring testimony of Buddhism’s peculiarity. Normally, the most fundamental definition of religion – which by the way is accepted for most part by nearly all thinkers – has, one way or another, the element of a belief in a Transcendent as one of the chief conditions to be satisfied. Taylor thus puts it simply: religion is nothing else but a â€Å"belief in a Supreme Being† (cited in McCutcheon, 2007, p. 22). As for Buddhism, many thinkers believe that the element of Transcendence in its core doctrines is not that apparent. Which is why, Williams would contend that Buddhism is a religious movement which is not so much associated with doctrinal beliefs as a â€Å"body of teachings with spiritual benefits (1989, p. 2). In fact, many of Buddhism’s teachings are concerned not really with religious worship as with lifestyle, rituals, devotions and meditations (Mitchell, 2002, p. 1). Buddhism believes reality is always in a constant flux. In other words, it maintains the absolute â€Å"impermanence† of all things (Griffiths, 1997, p. 16). In fact, in the entire corpus of Buddhism’s teachings, one may notice that the theme of impermanence is patently recurrent. Since this religion draws heavily from the fundamental recognition that nothing in the world is ever permanent, it therefore believes that human persons must exhibit a detached comportment in relation to the things of the world. In other words, the more a person appreciates the true implication of diversity and impermanence, in a manner being unattached to all things ephemeral, the more a person is closer to the truth about reality (Williams, 1989, p. 3). Taking cue from this fundamental belief, Buddhism teaches that human life is in a perpetual pursuit of enlightenment against the backdrop of an impermanent world; and this entails being constantly ‘dissatisfied’ by what – read: everything – the world offers (Williams, 1989, p. 34). In many ways, it is only by right of mere inference that one cannot anchor his or her happiness or enlightenment on something that ceases to become as time passes. Thus, the plain admission that reality is in fact impermanent should therefore lead believers to equally recognize that nothing in this world ever satisfies human existence to begin with. Buddhism also acknowledges that reality can sometimes be illusory. Put in other words, Buddhism subscribes to belief that, since things are subjected to a constant flux of change, â€Å"things (therefore) are not what they seem† (Griffiths, 1997, p. 20). To this end, the value of meditation takes concrete shape. Meditation allows a person to enter into the truth that the world cannot satisfy the longing for human contentment and bliss. It is even said that Buddha himself taught that one must always take on the attitude of â€Å"dissatisfaction† even in meditation. In this way, one can therefore sift through the elements which constitute eternal happiness from a world replete with ephemeral things (Mitchell, 2002, p. 33). Through meditation, Buddhism offers a way towards the ultimate state of blissfulness called Nirvana. Through it, one is able to create a standpoint marked by a deliberate renunciation of the world; i. e. , a total freedom from the world. It also has to be pointed out that Buddhism offers a set of belief systems that demands concrete actions as well. The doctrine called the four noble truths for instance essentially begins with the fundamental belief that â€Å"life is suffering† and subsequently demands correlative actions to address it. To concretely cite, Buddhism holds that there are four noble truths in life: namely, (1) life is suffering, (2) the cause of suffering is cravings for pleasure, (3) freedom from suffering is temperance from pleasures, and (4) the way to stop suffering is to practice the eight-fold path which includes, right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right living, right conduct, right mindfulness and right concentration (Mitchell, 2002, pp. 5-47). Buddhism and Christianity: a Juxtaposition It has to be firstly remembered that the task of the succeeding discussion is not to draw a point-for-point correspondence between Buddhism and Christianity. The whole point of comparing and contrasting is the inference of resemblances in either religious themes and moral tendencies of both relig ions in question, while affirming the innate distinctness each of them primarily possess. First, it is noteworthy to cite that both Buddhism and Christianity are religious movements that accede to the authority of their founders who act as the primordial and focal point of their emergence. Buddhism on the one hand sees Buddha as the exemplification of their journey towards a transcendent end. Buddha, while considered not as a divinity, remains to be the only figure of transcendent to whom Buddhism profess a faith. Christianity is pretty much the same; except that the person whom they recognize as its founder – Jesus Christ – is firstly believed to as a divinity. Like Buddhism, Christianity owes its emergence from the life and teachings of its recognized founder. In fact, according to Alister McGrath, â€Å"the precipitating cause of Christian faith and Christian doctrine was and is a man named Jesus† (1997, p. ). Put simply, the belief on the Lordship of Jesus Christ was the primordial force that pushed Christianity to become a distinct religious movement out of the mainline Judaic religion. Second, it is also wise to note that both Buddhism and Christianity believe on an ideal existence apart from this world. Buddhism, as mentioned, relegates a se rious amount of its teachings on meditations, in the hope that such a practice would usher its believers onto a state of complete bliss. Christianity too believes that in state of utterly blissful vision of the Lord, translated into heaven (Sheed, 1957, p. 220). Christians believe that when a person dies, his or her soul can either go to heaven or be condemned to hell. Be that as it may, the belief in the incomparable happiness brought about by man’s â€Å"living contact† with the â€Å"infinite perfection of God†, or the concept of an afterlife still emerges. Third, with equal interest it must also be mentioned that both Buddhism and Christianity place the question of suffering within the very context of their respective belief systems. Buddhism acknowledges that suffering needs to be purged and surpassed by letting oneself become free from the lures of the world. Christianity meanwhile believes that suffering has a place in the faith it professes. While Christianity recognizes the undeniable nature of human suffering, it treats the latter with much profoundness and uniqueness. Christianity does not teach that all sufferings must be purged; instead, it teaches that there are sufferings that must be embraced for the sake of heaven. This is supremely exemplified by Jesus Christ himself; the God-man who, by â€Å"suffering â€Å" in â€Å"His soul and body† on the cross saved the world from its sinfulness (Sheed, 1957, p. 127). By way of contrast though, it needs to be acknowledge that there are certain strains of beliefs that distinguish Buddhism from Christianity in a manner being patent and obvious. One can perhaps note how, first, Buddhism differs from Christianity on account of the belief in a divine transcendence. Christianity believes in a God which is Trinitarian in character. This means Christians profess to a God who comes in three distinct persons – the Father, the Son (who is Jesus Christ) and the Holy Spirit (Sheed, 1957, p. 54). If Christianity has a very concrete way of imaging its belief in a divinely transcendent Being, Buddhism’s belief system, by contrast, cannot sufficiently pinpoint the image of a divine; and a belief in the Supreme Being is highly ambiguous for them. Far more critical, there are even those who doubt if the idea of a Supreme Being is tenable for the Buddhist faith. Griffiths for instance notes that ‘the metaphysics of impermanence’ makes it difficult for Buddhist to conceive of a god, who, at least for Christians, is considered to be enduring, impermanent and most of all, unchangeable (1997, p. 23). Second, briefly it can be cited too that Buddhism differs from Christianity in terms of religious structure. It was previously mentioned that Buddhism does not appear to demand a uniform set of doctrines for all its members to observe. This is why, there are a number of different versions of Buddhism throughout the world. Christianity on the contrary insists on a universal acceptance of its official corpus of teachings. While this does not imply that Christianity does not have its own minority versions, the crux of the matter here is that, Christianity, unlike Buddhism, emphasizes, or, more appropriately insists on the need, for its adherents, to profess in â€Å"one† – i. e. , uniform – set of key doctrinal tenets (Sheed, 1957, p. 140). Conclusion This paper concludes with a thought that firstly affirms the need to recognize the value of Buddhism as a movement distinct and unique on its own. As a religion which has been in place for the longest time in human history, it was learned though the discussions that Buddhism takes root from the life and inspiration lent by its recognized founder, Gautama Buddha. Moreover, it was also learned that Buddhism has long established itself as one of the major religions of the world to date, offering its adherents a doctrine which on the one hand embraces a perpetual dissatisfaction towards all things, and on the other hand longs for a state of complete happiness that can only be found within. By right of mere logic, it is not for nothing that millions of people embrace this faith with much devotion and passion; for its doctrines allow its believers to glimpse beyond the ephemeral affairs of the world. With equal interest, this paper also presented a ponderous juxtaposition of Buddhism and Christianity, and therefore concludes that there are indeed strains of similarities which can be gleaned from between the two religions. Among others, it was learned that both of them recognize authoritative figures as their revered founders – Gautama for Buddhism and Jesus Christ for Christianity. And surely, there are lot more similarities and differences which can be cited to this end. In the final analysis though, this paper further concludes that despite teeming differences, many of the aspects of both religions manifest areas that may be taken as facets for future dialogue and mutual appreciation.

Monday, July 29, 2019

Research Paper PhD Level A Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Research Paper PhD Level A - Essay Example Authentication procedures in the modern day rely extensively on electronic methods. A single sign-on solution allows end-users a secured authentication for access and usage of desktops, enterprise applications, electronic communications, administrative and operational tasks (â€Å"SECUDE IT Security,† 2008). Electronic authentication is the receiver of an electronic data message or data transaction that can assess and determine whether to accept or deny the user’s request. Preconfigured systems can force users to verify their authenticity prior to gaining access to the system or providing an electronic data transaction to another system. Electronic authentication assures confidence that user identities are processed safely, securely and reliably for the procedures of electronic communications to information systems (Burr, Dodson & Polk, 2006). Electronic authentication (E-authentication) presents an immense challenge in several scenarios, as the subsequent sections of this research will highlight. The process of electronic authentication is known to require several proof measures depending on the relative assurance of safety of the transaction, the reliability on the technology and the approach used, the legalities associated with the authentication parameters as well as the value of the transaction being made. Burr, Dodson & Polk (2006) best describes electronic authentication, Electronic authentication is the process of establishing confidence in user identities electronically presented to an information system. E-authentication presents a technical challenge when this process involves the remote authentication of individual people over a network, for the purpose of electronic government and commerce. Electronic authentication is still an emerging field that is witnessing the growth of newer and stronger authentication protocols aimed at outwitting the attempts of potential attackers. The increasingly remote use of authentication

Sunday, July 28, 2019

Evaluating Fashion and its Impact on Individuals Essay

Evaluating Fashion and its Impact on Individuals - Essay Example The essay "Evaluating Fashion and its Impact on Individuals" analyzes the influence of Evaluating Fashion on Individuals. Fashion has been used as the resource by individual for the purpose of construction of their identity and positioning themselves at a higher place in comparison to other. Fashion has an important role to play in articulation of ethnic identity in relation to the contemporary setting in routine life ethnic identity just like other types of social identity. It is not considered to be real and essential, but actually it is a multi faced phenomenon, which is different at varied places and time. An imperative factor, which is helpful in construction and articulation of ethic identities with the help of fashion, is cultural displacement. In relation to force, which is exerted for the purpose of relocation to different parts of world because of slavery, poverty, religious and political persecution, etc. have been very helpful in marking out a new space for cultural prefe rence in terms of fashion. Along with this, the advent of globalisation has also been a key factor, which has influenced the lives of young people. There has been a debate over the change in fashion patterns because of globalisation. Late modernity, which is a period representing the disjunction between the communities and securities of modernity and the realities of post-second world war has been highly influence by the trends of fashion industry. At the time of 1970s, the research undertaken by Dick Hebdige.

Saturday, July 27, 2019

Factors Affecting Marketing Strategy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Factors Affecting Marketing Strategy - Essay Example The product type dealt with in this study for the development of advertising campaign is â€Å"Off-Brand Cereal,† which has a low involvement. Low involvement products refer to a set of products wherein the consumer takes the decision to purchase or consume it based on less information, as the products are used on a regular basis and have a relatively low price as compared to other products. Low involvement is when the need for the product is recognized and a purchase is made without much knowledge. Consumers normally involve in the routine response behavior which is immediate purchase and also deal with impulse purchase which is buying of products without planning while making low involvement decisions. The price involved is for off brand cereal is low as compared to other products such as cars. Moreover, the low involvement products have less advertisement as these are the products that are used on a regular basis by nearly every individual. The quality of the product has no thing to do with the price or the advertisement as the new product launch requires a clear focus on promotion to reach the public even if it is of low involvement. The marketing strategy used for the off brand cereal selected will be the mimicking an existing campaign of a famous cereal brand. The reason for using the option of mimicking of the existing brand’s strategy is because of the success story of the brand. The way branded product influences the consumers to select it along with meeting the requirements of the target market segment would be keenly considered while developing action plan for off brand cereal (Tanner & Raymond, 2012). Market Segment of Cereals Users Focused The target market for the cereal based products such as cornflakes are usually children from the age group between 6-14 years. The market size of the consumer of the morning cereal as per the United States census of 2012 is 37,022,425 children (American Path Finder, 2012). In this regard, the target consumers are the children. In order to make the product aware and increase the sales, advisements must be generated keeping in mind the population targeted. As per data, it is evident that in the earlier years, the marketing strategy was not as important as the current situation. According to the data of 2003, the target segment was nearly 26,251,000 children, which is much lower than the current market size (Fields, 2004). The advertisement campaigns at that point of were less aggressive as the level of competition was less. Today, in order to place the non-branded products, a lot of promotion and advertisement is required to meet the growing demand of present and future. Moreover, with the growing trend of the prospects by 2025, the projected target market is expected to grow further to 114,052,000 (United States Census Bureau, 2012). The factors that affect the market segment of the cereal consumption include the price of the product which is strategized to meet the requirement. The quality of the product which is of significance for the health issues of the target segment. And, establishing a brand awareness of the product in the mind of the parents is crucial as they make the purchases based on their income and status. The purchasing behavior of the product depends on various factors, such as the price of the branded products and the quality of the food as it is largely consumed by

Friday, July 26, 2019

Researching the Field of Adult Learning Research Paper

Researching the Field of Adult Learning - Research Paper Example ESL hereby stands for English as a Second Language. In other words, adult education system is more popular as a distance education. However, distance educational system is considered as one of the rapidly emerging modes of education. Growth within the field has herewith led the informal and formal education trends to a higher level (Veletsianos, 2010). During adult education practice, students greater and proper attention is in demand for focused guidelines and assistance from their peers as well as teachers. In case of ESL, adults require greater support and motivation for adopting the learning skills majorly owing to the fact that they practice a separate mother tongue. In this regard, technological adoption in ESL program is expected to be more beneficial for those who are interested in learning ESL. Contextually, technological invention is the main evidence of the new emerging educational system wherein the use of internet, computers, cells phones, laptops and many other digital devises in the teaching process as well as in the classrooms has been proved to be beneficial. In ESL process, technological innovation is useful for better communication. It is also observed that communication process is helpful in adopting the language within a shorter time span as compared to the conventional system. Contextually, adult students are more frequent about the use of various technical devices. Proper usage of technical devices in ESL will be helpful for quick learning (Araya & Gamboa, 2012; Choitz & Prince, 2008). Technological invention in distance education is also getting more popular day by day. Hence, it has been observed that technological invention in adult educational system is a positive initiative as it is more competent in providing better opportunities to the people (Merriam, & Grace, 2011). In case of ESL, the usage of technical devices has been playing an important role for both the learners

Thursday, July 25, 2019

VOTING Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

VOTING - Essay Example According Lijphart (1999, p69), Cleisthenes introduced one of the earliest recorded systems of democracy in Greece back in 508 BC. This system of democracy required voters to select the least preferred politician who was then exiled for ten years in a distant country. The minimum number of votes that were required to have a politician exiled was 6000.However, if more than one politician received more than the set threshold votes, the candidate with the higher number of votes was exiled instead( Lijphart, 1999,p72). In the thirteenth century, the Venetian state created one of the most developed electoral systems at the time. The Venetian system nominated forty members in ‘Great Council’ and in the mid 13 century, the number of council members elected was increased to sixty (Grofman, & Merrill, 1999, p53) Though Venetians applied different electoral systems, approval-voting system was the most popular. The approval system required voters to cast a single vote for every can didate vying for a position in the council. Eventually, the candidate who garnered the highest number of votes was declared the winner to represent the state in the council (Grofman, & Merrill, 1999, p38). ... Equally important all candidates should be treated equally, without favoring a particular person over another. By treating the candidates equally, Schofield (2001, p584) notes that the voters are presented with a favorable opportunity of electing a person of their choice without bias and prejudice of any sort. Fair elections should also ensure that the victory goes to the candidate with the highest number of votes. Different governments and organizations apply various methods of ensuring effectiveness of the participants’ votes. According to Lijphart (1999, p102), votes become ineffective in electoral processes that lack fairness and transparency to both voters and the candidates. These malpractices include allowing particular voters to cast more than one vote, discriminating voters based on their gender, social and economic status, tribe, or ethnicity. In such cases, the votes become ineffective because people are not given an opportunity to elect candidates of their choice ( Lijphart, 1999, p105). In United states for instance, debate on whether setting the minimum voting age amounts to discrimination of young voters still persist. Candidates should be given an equal platform for presenting their candidature to the electorate. However, Schofield (2001, p587) notes that many electoral systems in the world contain elements of unfairness that favor a particular candidate over another or others. In such cases, the preferred candidate receives preferential treatment in form of positive media coverage, favorable popularity ratings among other practices at the expense of the other candidates. These practices make the vote to be ineffective because the

The controversy of using non-human primates in medical research Essay

The controversy of using non-human primates in medical research - Essay Example They are useful in safety testing of new drugs and substances meant for human medication and dentistry (Arnold, 2012). The urgency that is there in the development of vaccines, antibiotic drugs and antiretroviral for the current crop of new diseases facing humans, primates are used. HIV, malaria, and tuberculosis attribute their research success on the use of primates. Experiments with primates are important in studying of the human brain and organ transplant in human beings (Arnold, 2012). The other reason why primates are used in animal testing is their similarity to human beings since they share 98 percent of human genes (Arnold, 2012). Primates and humans develop in a similar manner in their infants and young stages and this makes them a rich source of reference and testing of drugs for use by infants and children (Arnold, 2012). Due to their similarity immune system to that of human beings, primates are the most suitable species to conduct studies on various infectious

Wednesday, July 24, 2019

Race and Your Community Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Race and Your Community - Essay Example who has not had much engagement in the arena of race discourse and who have been spared the oppressions wrought upon racial minorities, it is all too easy for me to forget that there are looming issues that need to be resolved and ugly truths that have to be confronted. And while much has changed since the 1800’s, and new developments have been introduced that have sought to alleviate the racial divide not only in this State and in this country but in the world as well, it is incorrect to believe that the problem has been completely solved. We must be grateful that the world we have now is a better, more tolerant and more accepting world, but we must still try to think of steps to further reduce the racial divide. I look around me and I see that members of my community look like me. White Americans easily form 70% of my community, though there are those of African American, Asian and Latin American descent around me. Caucasians look alike for obvious reasons – skin color, eye color and hair color reveal a common racial blueprint. Even the most idle observer would perhaps be able to distinguish among the races because of these distinctions. It is also worthy to note that the racial divide seems to extend to choice in fashion, music, and the like. African-Americans tend to dress alike, for instance, and have the same tastes in music. For example, Tennessee boasts of a long tradition of gospel music, commonly associated with African Americans. Jazz music is also another Tennessee tradition. The Harlem Renaissance of the 1920’s – the period wherein blacks made their mark in the artistic scene – saw black musicals and jazz music emerging in the mainstream scene. Indeed, the differences in the musical tastes run deep and add a colorful flavor to the Tennessee cultural collage. Of course, there are many songs of recent vintage that cut across race, particularly among the younger generation. Our political office is comprised of African-Americans and Caucasians

Tuesday, July 23, 2019

Hispanics in United States Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Hispanics in United States - Research Paper Example without members of a bigger, much more enigmatical word Hispano-American or Latin-American. Around 2000, 32.5 000000 Hispano-Americans settled in the U.S. consisting near about 12 % of the net crowd. In the period 1990 to 2000, the Hispano-American population grew by almost 10000000 people, accounting for 38 % of the country’s total growth of population as the decade was running. Hispano-Americans are anticipated to be the 51 % of the people between the 2000 and 2050 which will lead the Hispano-Americans being the 98 000000 by the mid century, so showing about 25 % of the net United States population and significantly more than their current population. Around 2000, Hispano-Americans were the biggest minority community already among the kids and, by 2005, Hispano-Americans outdone Blacks as the country’s largest minority community among all. (U.S. Diplomatic Mission to Germany, 1) Hispano-Americans are a wide spread community having individuals of various roots and race s. Biggest Hispano-American subcommunity in the U.S. is of the Mexican roots, in 1997, they consisted of almost 66 % of the Hispano-American crowd. Other Hispano-American sub communities came from the Central or the South of American continent are of 15 % from Puerto Rico and Cuba 9 % and 4 % consecutively lastly rest the Hispano-American nations 6 %. Of the Hispano-Americans currently living in U.S., 62 % took birth in U.S. ... Asia-Pacific Islanders were less similar than Hispano-Americans, black or white to get possessed by two native-born parents of United States. (U.S. Diplomatic Mission to Germany, 1) The Hispanic population is increasing rapidly as the days are going by in proportion to the white and black kids. As we reach 2020 it is anticipated that every fifth child will have his or her root in Hispanic origin. Recently, Hispanic kids account for every sixth child. The steadily increasing Hispanic crowd below 18 years is an attribute to the increased emigration and also to the comparatively higher fertility rate per year of Hispano-American women. (U.S. Diplomatic Mission to Germany, 1) Immigration: The Hispanic people in the U.S. is increasing fast and in coming days will turn into the biggest minority group. It is very common to walk through the roads of a city in America today and listen to Spanish words. In 1950 less than 4000000 United States civilians were found from Spanish spoken countries. Nowadays the number grew to 45000000. About 50 % of Hispanics in U.S. have migrated from Mexico. The rest 50 % migrated from various countries such as El Salvador with Dominican Republic as well as Colombia. 36% of the Hispano-Americans in the U.S. live around California. Lots of other states posses’ large Hispano-American populations, including the Texas, New York states like Illinois, Florida are in the list also where numerous Cubans escaping the Castro incumbency have set down. Most of them were illegal immigrants. However, they have now settled down well. There are numbers of Cuban Americans inside Miami so the largest newspaper of the city Miami Herald presents different versions in English as well as Spanish. (U.S. Diplomatic Mission to Germany, 1) People think about

Monday, July 22, 2019

Citizens Advice Service Essay Example for Free

Citizens Advice Service Essay Private sector means that the government does not control the ownership of a business; instead, members of the public control it. Different types of firms make up the private sector. These include sole traders, partnerships, limited companies and Public Limited Companies. Private-sectors firms are usually aiming to make a profit. Sole Trader A sole trader firm is the smallest firm from the category of private sector firms, consisting of only one owner and that owner does business in their own name. That owner has the control of the firm, and with this control, they must finance, organise and develop the firm. A typical example of a sole trader is the local corner shop, selling the essential grocery items. Advantages One main advantage is that these firms require little capital. Another advantage is that there is an incentive to work hard. This is because the firm is owned by one person, meaning that the owner must do most of the work themselves, including promote and finance the business. Therefore, if the owner wants their firm to succeed, they must work hard. If there is only one owner and possibly couple of staff in the firm, there will be regular customers known. With this relationship, customers will return repeatedly to the firm, therefore producing more sales. As there is only one owner, business decisions can be made quickly as there will not be other people interfering. Business decisions are vital for the firm to proceed, so the quicker a decision can be made, the quicker the outcome. This advantages the owner as the outcome can benefit their company. Disadvantages One disadvantage is it can be difficult to raise and find capital meaning that it is hard to start the business and to expand. Another disadvantage is that the sole trader has unlimited liability for all debts and the owner may have to sell personal possessions to meets the debts of their business. Illness is a disadvantage to a sole trader. If the owner is sick, the business may be closed for a time and money is not made to pay expenses that the owner has. Another disadvantage is the long hours may be necessary for the business to succeed. If the owner is not willing and determined to work long hours, the business will not succeed and this may produce debts. With sole traders, the success of the business relies on the skills of the owner. If the owner has no experience of running a business or business skills, this may cause the business to fail. Partnership A partnership firm is one with 2-20 owners and these owners share the responsibly of running the firm together as the control is divided up equally between the partners. An example of a business of the partnership type is a firm of doctors. Advantages As there are a number of people, more capital can be raised as all the partners contribute to the business. Each partner has their own skills and between them, the partners have more skills, ideas and knowledge than a single person does. Partners with different skills can specialise in their own areas and this increases the ranges of service that customers are offered. In a partnership, any problems Passive Voice (consider revising). Another advantage is regular customers will be known and these customers will return repeatedly to the firm, therefore producing more sales that advantage the firm. Disadvantages With partnerships, the partners have unlimited liability for all the debts. This could lead to the partners selling their personal possessions to help pay off the company’s debts. A main disadvantage is when a partner makes a mistake, that mistake affects all the partners and the firm. This is a disadvantage because a mistake can affect the running and the flow of the firm. The profits of the business must be shared. This can be a disadvantage because the partners may think that a person in the partnership should not get the same amount of money because it seems that they have not put as much work into the firm. This then creates conflict and affects the way the firm runs. Private Limited Company (Ltd) A private limited company has one or more owners, with the directors of the company elected by the shareholders. These directors control and have the responsibly of running the firm. An example of a private limited company could be a garage. Advantages There is limited liability as shareholders can lose only the amount they have invested into the firm, no matter how much money that firm owes. Shareholders contribute capital and there is no fixed amount. This is an advantage because as more shareholders invest money, whatever the amount, the more chance the firm is going to success and grow with the money. Private limited companies are protected from takeovers. This is because shares cannot be exchanged to other people unless all the shareholders agree. In addition, the members of the public cannot bring the shares. This is an advantage as this gives the owners of the firm direct control of the business.

Sunday, July 21, 2019

History of Curriculum and Ethics in Siam: 1935-1970

History of Curriculum and Ethics in Siam: 1935-1970 Chapter IV Primary Curriculum and Ethics Instruction During 1935 1970 (B.E. 2478 2513) In the previous three Chapters we have seen that in Siam[1], throughout the periods with which we are concerned, the kings had absolute power and were treated recognized as the ‘Lord of life’.  They who seemed to bewere ultimate authorities in all aspects of the country’s development, including education.  Even though the education ministry was established in 1894, educational policies were still under controlled ofby the kings through the.  ministers of the education whom he assigned. However, in 1932 a military coup brought the era of absolute monarchy to an abrupt end and replaced it with a constitutional monarchy in which the king was confined to a largely ceremonial role.   Few years after co-operation with the new administrative power under the institutional system, king Rama VII felt uneasy to compromise his different political opinion with the political leaders that brought to his abdication in 1935.  Therefore the constitutional government had absolute power over the country.  The ‘modernization period’ of educational reform thus initiated in 1935 and which continued till 1970, was a period of transformation, as the political revolution triggered changes in every aspect of Thai society. The administrative power was transferred from king to Prime minister and his cabinets. Though the minister of education was remained the same in the beginning of this period, but one out of six pillar policies of the cabinet was to provide equal education to all, hence wWe would expect that ethics instruction could hardly have escaped these political is socialand social upheaval untouched. The question is therefore just how far and in what ways ethics instruction was transformed during the modernization period. 1. The Modernization Period 1935 – 1970 (B.E.2478-2513)   In 1935, after the abdication of King Rama VII, King Rama VIII was offered the crown.  A young man on his ascent to the throne, he reigned for 11 years, most of which he spent outside the kingdom, for his education and especially during the period of World War II.  He died in mysterious circumstances in 1946.  Besides, he was under the constitution monarchy system; his impact on Thai education was thus invisible. His brother, Rama IX, followed him on the thrown and has held it to the present day – the longest reigning monarch in the world.  However, since we are concerned with educational issue in primary curriculum and the ethics instruction in this period, the discussion will end at the year of 1970 which is in the first 25 years of Rama IX’s reign.  In this modernization period, primary curriculum was developed based on western idea and theory.  There was a Royal Announcement and four primary curricula used in this period, which are the following: Royal Announcement 1936  (B.E. 2479) Primary Curriculum  1937 ( Laksutr Prathomsuksa : B.E.2480) Primary Curriculum 1948 ( Laksutr Prathomsuksa: B.E.2491) Primary Curriculum  1955 ( Laksutr Prathomsuksa : B.E.2498) Primary Curriculum 1960 ( Laksutr Prathomsuksa Tonton and Tonplai : B.E.2503) Ginsburg says that to examine the educational reformation efforts in any country, the global structural and ideological context must be investigated on how they constrain it is necessary to investigate how the global structural and ideological contexts constrain and enableand enable individual and group actors’ transactions concerning education.[2] From such a perspective the situation of Thailand is peculiar. As mentioned earlier that in this period, the absolute monarchy system was replaced by the constitutional monarchy system. Consequently, the central administrative system and politics were changed into democratic system based on the western view. However, although though the constitution was the supreme law of the Kingdom of Thailand, the country has had 18 charters and constitutions[3] since the coup backed the change from the absolute to constitutional monarchy in 1932, and this reflects the high degree of political instability and frequency of military coups faced by the nation. After each successful coup, the military regimes abrogated existing constitutions and promulgated interim ones. Somehow, this circumstance affected the national socio-economics, religion, and education.  The question is how far and in what ways ethics instruction in primary curriculum was affected by all such a fluid political situation. 1.1. Politics and Administration  1935 1970 (B.E.2478 2513) After the 1932 revolution by People’s Party, King Rama VII or King Prajadhipok was forced to grant the first constitution on 10 December 1932 by the three main coup leaders with, [4] who were educated who were scholarship students and educated in France and Germany where the national revolution and social crisis was floated over in nineteenth century. after French Revolution and social crisis. These reformers or coup leaders, who were known as the promoters, were representatives of the younger generation of western-oriented political elite that were educated to be helpersbe instruments of an absolute monarchy that they viewed as archaic and inadequate to the task of modern government. The principals in the coup identified themselves as nationalists. All of them became prime ministers and the major figures in Thai politics for the next three decades. Pridi Phanomyong[5],, one of the countrys leading intellectuals, was the most influential civilian promoter, who became a prime minister in 1946/B.E.2489. His chief rival among the other promoters was Pibul, or Luang Plaek Pibulsongkram[6], an ambitious junior army officer who later attained the rank of field marshal and was the prime minister during 1938/1944 and 1948-1957/B.E.2481-2487;2491-2500. Phraya Phahonphonphayuhasena[7], the senior member of the group, who was sent by royal schorlarship to study in Germany and Denmark from 1903 till 1912, he became the prime minister in 1933-1938/B.E.2476-2481 represented old-line military officers dissatisfied with cuts in appropriations for the armed forces. After the triumph of the coup, these three exercised power as members of a cabinet, the Commissariat of the People, chosen by the National Assembly that had been summoned by them. To compromise both modern and conservative opinion, a retired jurist, Phraya Manopakorn Nithitada[8], was chosen as the president of the first committees assembly, and the first prime minister after the political change during 1932-1933/B.E.2475-2476. Since the country has been ruled by prime minister and his cabinet under constitutional system, king has no absolute power as before.   However, in this period, there were some remarkable circumstances related to kings’ life that more or less provided some political stresses such as king Rama VII’s abdication and the mystery death of king Rama VIII. Interestingly to learn how kings’ position and mission could be, and how the government under democratic system took place in the period of significant political change. 1.1.1.  King Rama VII’s Abdication Due to the coupSince 1932, king Prajadhipok or king Rama VII, to avoid violence, surrendered his absolute power to the coup leaders, then the country has been governed under democratic system where the king has no power under the constitution but he remains as the symbol of national identity and unity. Since then king Rama VII had co-operated his mission with the new governors till 1934 he went abroad for a medical treatment. Whereas he was abroad he proposed to the government some conditions in serving as constitutional monarch. However, the government would not agree with his opinion, and so on March 2nd, 1935 he announced his resignation and issued a brief statement criticizing the administration. In it he wrote, â€Å"I wish to surrender my formerly absolute powers to all people, not to turn them over to anyone or any group to use in an autocratic manner without concerning the people’s voice.†[9] In his letter, he blamed the government of having no hold for democratic principles, employing methods of administration incompatible with individual freedom and the principles of justice, ruling in an autocratic manner and not letting the people have a real voice in country’s affairs. Anyhow, the resignation from the throne of king Rama VII gave a good chance to the constitutional government to select the next king on their choice. Instead of choosing Prince Chulachakrapongse,[10] who was on the first ranking of royal family to success to the throne, the parliament, by the convince of Pridi, selected Prince Ananda Mahidol, the youngest son of HRH Prince Mahidol Adulyadej and Mom Sri-Sangwal (later Somdej Phra Sri Nakarindhara Boromaratchachonnani), who was only 9 years old and studying in Switzerland to be the next king. His young age and absence from the country were the causes of the selection that would grant to the government an absolute freedom in ruling the country without king’s power or interference. Accordingly, Prince Ananda Mahidol was in the throne as king Rama VIII in 1935.   1.1.2.  King Rama VIII and Assassination (1935-1946) After king Rama VII’s Abdication, prince Ananda Mahidol was elected by the government to succeed king Rama VII, his uncle on March 2, 1935 as king Rama VIII.  However, with his 9 years old, he continued his studying and staying with his family in Lausanne, Switzerland.  He visited Thailand at the first time in 1939 when he was 13 years old. As seen in the news, television, including the story of See Phandin (Four Reigns), many people were excited to see their young king who had grown up in European country after Siam had been without a resident king for many years. Having heard about his news and seeing his good looking, the people admired king Rama VIII greatly, therefore after his first visit the country and departing to study again, thousands of people went to see him off at the airport, wished him and looked forward for his return. Seven years later (1946), at the age of 20, King Ananda Mahidol was back to Thailand together with the Princess Mother, Sri-sangval, and his younger brother, Prince Bhumibol[11]. By this time, he visited some communities  His visits in Bangkok and the surrounding areas were heartily welcomed whereas his informal and warm contact were impressed by the people in those areas. One important place of his visits was Sampheng[12], a district in Bangkok that King Rama I gave to the Chinese community after the establishment of Bangkok as the capital of the country in 1782. Before Chinese people were living in the place where  King Rama I would construct the royal residence (Grand Palace at present) on, therefore, Chinese residents were asked to move and settle down in Sampheng.  Since then, there had been clashes between the local people who had lived at Sampheng before and the Chinese people who moved into that area. Thus the visit of King Rama VIII and prince Bhumibol, his brother, not only be appreciated  but also released the tension conflict and reconciled among the local Thais and Chinese communities.  This might be the last memorial mission of king Rama VIII. On June 9th, 1946, unexpectedly a few days before his return to Switzerland to achieve his education, he was mysteriously assassinated with a gun shot in his room at Boromphimarn Palace.[13]  Certainly, the news of the King’ death in such circumstance shocked the people and made them cried. The entire country dressed in black and miserable prevailed in every corner of the nation. The first official announcement was mentioned that king Rama VIII shot himself accidently, later due to some investigations, his close servers were killed for this guilt. likewise, Pridi, who was elected by the parliament to be the prime minister one day before the king’s death, was accused to get involved.  Nevertheless, the cause of his unexpected death has remained in doubt and been officially unexplained up to now. The reign of king Rama VIII was 11 years and under the new democratic system and since he was very young and spent most of the time in studying aboard that required a Council of Regency, so as a powerless king, he didn’t conduct many tasks in his kingship. Nevertheless he still earned love, respect and be memorized by people for his gentleness, sincerity, and intellectual. After his death, his brother Prince Bhumipol Aduldej was invited to succeed as King Rama IX. 1.1.3.  King Rama IX (1946-present) Prince Bhumibol Adulyadej[14] was born in 1927, in the United States.  He first came to Thailand in 1928 and finished his primary education at Mater Dei school, a catholic school in Bangkok.  In 1933, after the political change in Thailand, he left with his family for Switzerland. After his brother, king Rama VIII’s death, he ascended the throne on June 9, 1946 as king Bhumibol or Rama IX.  However, he returned to study in Switzerland till 1950 and went back to Thailand for the Coronation Ceremony on May 5, 1950.   On that day he announced that â€Å"I will reign the country with Dharma for the benefit and happiness of the people†[15]. His word reflected on his private missions in developing people’s welfare especially for poor people. As a king of democratic system, he is under the constitution and no administrative power, his signature of approval for political affair is required as only official tradition. Since he came to the throne after tragic difficulties such as absolute monarchy’s failure, king Rama VII’s abdication, and lately his king brother’s assassination, moreover, he was invited from the constitutional government to be in the reign, therefore, he or less has been aware of his missions in king’s position.  He spent most of the time in visiting ruler people that made him found more than thousand agricultural and natural protection projects to help the poor.   Though he is under constitution and has less power than the absolute monarchy, according to his vision or guidance, many projects are initiated by cooperating with local people, government agencies, and NGOs.  As a result, he gains enormous popular respect and moral authority in his long reign, more than 60 years.  In addition, he was from time to time drawn to get involved with some political crises or national conflicts. It can be said that, to some extent, the king Rama IX indirectly helped and influenced political issues that considerably of his national concern by his moral power. Due to the political change in 1932 with the constitutional system in 1935, the monarchy’s power in administration was transferred to prime minister and his cabinet. It is interesting to take a look at the democratic government that would be the key of development and reformation of the country in all aspects including educational reform. 1.1.4.  Government and Administrative Structure As this period of modernization under the constitutional monarchy system, all official works of the country were conducted by the prime minister and his cabinet. Even though the country was seemingly a â€Å"democracy† from then, in fact the government was dominated by the military dictatorship in an authoritarian manner. Civilian leaders were often deposed by military coups. In this period of 35 years the country had three prime ministers who were Field Marshalls who got power from the coups. They were  Field Marshall Plaek Phibunsongkhram (Prime Minister, 1938-1944; 1949-1957), Field Marshall Sarit Dhanarajata (Prime Minister, 1959-1963), and Field Marshall Thanom Kittikachorn (Prime Minister, 1958, 1963-1973).[16]  There were six civilian prime ministers leading the country approximately 4 years out of 35 years of this modernization period, all the rest of the years was under Military leaders.[17] In summary, prime minister position was changed 15 times in 35 years and the political scenario in Thailand was always volatile. Many coups d’etate took place and a number of constitutions were created. Military leaders and dictators had always influenced Thai politics. The governmental structure of Thailand has undergone gradual and practical evolution in response to the various changes. Even so, the basic concepts of constitutional government and monarchy laid down in the 1932 constitution remain more or less the same. We could list them in the following way. In the first figure[18] (Figure 1) the structure of the parliamentary system is given as an example. And later on we also point out the other details of the administrative system.   The first and foremost concept of the charters and constitutions is the status of the monarch as Head of State, Head of Armed Forces, and Upholder of the Buddhist Religion and all other religions. The King, as Head of State, exercises his legislative power through the parliament, executive power through the Cabinet headed by the Prime Minister, and judicial power through the courts.  He is empowered with the right to be consulted and to advise and even warn the government when it appears not to administer the state affairs for the good of the people.  So the main points of the constitution are that the highest administrative power belongs to the people not the King and that the power is to be exercised through the peoples representatives. The second concept is about legislative branch, which is a bicameral parliamentary system composing of the House of Representatives (MPs), and the House of Senators. The third concept is the executive branch. As per every constitution, the Prime Minister is head of government and chief executive. The Cabinet is responsible for the administration of 14 ministries, as well as the Office of the Prime Minister. A number of cabinet committees have been set up consisting of relevant ministers, such as the Cabinet Economics Committee and the Cabinet Social Affairs Committee etc. to coordinate major policies concerned. Besides the ministers who were responsible for each ministry, there were a number of ministers holding the portfolio of â€Å"Minister Attached to the Prime Ministers Office.† They were in charge of various responsibilities undertaken by this office which in itself ranks as a ministry and largely deal with formulating the national policy.[19] According to the  framework of a constitutional monarchy,  the Prime Minister is the head of government and a hereditary monarch is head of state. The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature.  The country is divided into 75 provinces, excluding Bangkok Metropolis which is the capital of the country.  Each province, which is administered by an appointed governor, is sub-divided into districts, sub-districts or tambons (groups of villages) and villages.  The Bangkok Metropolitan Administration (BMA) is administered by an elected governor and is divided into 50 districts. Once the first democratic form of government was founded and the constitution was put into effect, conflict began to erupt among the members of the initial ruling coalition. There were four major factions competing for power: the older conservative civilian faction led by Phraya Manopakorn Nititada[20]; the senior military faction led by Phraya Phahol[21]; the junior army and navy faction led by Luang Plaek Phibunsongkhram and the young civilian faction led by Pridi Phanomyong.[22]  In spite of such power struggles, there were some remarkable political events occurred in this period. 1.1.5.  Political events The pursuit of nationalism. The military, led by Major General Plaek Pibulsongkram[23] as Defence Minister, and the civilian liberals led by Pridi as Foreign Minister, worked together harmoniously for several years in the beginning of Constitutional system. But when Pibulsongkramn became the third prime minister in December 1938 this co-operation broke down, and military domination became more overt.   Pibulsongkram was an admirer of Benito Mussolini, and his regime soon developed some fascist characteristics. In early 1939 forty political opponents, both monarchists and democrats, were arrested, and after rigged trials eighteen were executed, which was the first political executions in Siam in over a century. Many others, among them Prince Damrong and Phraya Songsuradej, were exiled. Pibulsongkramn launched a demagogic campaign against the Chinese business class. Chinese schools and newspapers were closed, and taxes on Chinese businesses increased. Siam to Thailand. Also in 1939, Pibulsongkramn changed the countrys name from Siam to Prathet Thai, or Thailand, meaning land of the free. Modernization was also an important theme in Pibulsongkramns new Thai nationalism. From 1938 to 1942 he issued a set of twelve Cultural Mandates. In addition to requiring that all Thais salute the flag, know the National Anthem, and speak the national language, the mandates also encouraged Thais to work hard, stay informed on current events, and to dress in a western fashion. By 1941 it became illegal to ridicule those who attempted to promote national customs. The program also encompassed fine arts. Fiercely nationalistic plays and films were sponsored by the government. Often these depicted a glorious past when Thai warriors fearlessly gained freedom for the country, defended their honor, or sacrifice themselves. Patriotism was taught in schools and was a recurrent theme in songs and dances. At the same time, Pibulsongkram worked rigorously to rid society of its royalist influences traditional royal holidays were replaced with new national events, royal and aristocratic titles were abandoned. Ironically, he retained his aristocratic surname. Even the Sangha was affected when the status of the royally sponsored Thammayuth sect was downgraded.   World War II and Thai politics. In 1940, most of France was occupied by Nazi Germany, and Pibulsongkram immediately set out to avenge Siams humiliations by France in 1893 and 1904, when the French had redrawn the borders of Siam with Laos and Cambodia by forcing a series of treaties.  Anti-French demonstrations were incessantly held around Bangkok, and in late 1940 border skirmishes erupted along the Maekong frontier. On January 9 1941, Thailand attacked southern Vietnam, giving Tokyo a reason to move on Sà  i Gà ²n (Hà ¡Ã‚ »Ã¢â‚¬Å" Chà ­ Minh City).  In 1941, the skirmishes became a small scale war between Vichy France and Thailand. The Thai forces dominated the war on the ground and in the air, but suffered a crushing naval defeat at the battle of Chang Island (Koh Chang). The Japanese then stepped in to mediate the conflict. The final settlement thus gave back to Thailand the disputed areas in Laos and Cambodia. Pibulsongkrams prestige was so increased that he was able to bask in a feeling of being truly the nations leader. As if to celebrate the occasion, he promoted himself to field marshal, skipping the ranks of lieutenant general and general.  This caused a rapid deterioration of relations with the United States and Britain.  In April 1941 the United States cut off petroleum supplies to Thailand. Thailands campaign for territorial expansion came to an end on December 8, 1941 when Japan invaded the country along its southern coastline and from Cambodia. After initially resisting, the Pibulsongkram regime allowed the Japanese to pass through the country in order to attack Burma and invade Malaya. Convinced by the Allied defeats of early 1942 that Japan was winning the war, Pibulsongkram decided to form an actual military alliance with the Japanese. As a reward, Japan allowed Thailand to invade and annex the Shan States in northern Burma, and to resume sovereignty over the sultanates of northern Malaya which had previously been lost in a treaty with Britain.  In January 1942 Pibulsongkram declared war on Britain and the United States, but the Thai Ambassador in Washington, Seni Pramoj, refused to deliver it to the State Department. Instead, Seni denounced the Pibulsongkram regime as illegal and formed a Seri Thai Movement in Washington.  Pridi, by then serving in the role of an apparently powerless regent, led the resistance movement inside Thailand, while former Queen Ramphaiphanni[24] was the nominal head of the movement in Great Britain. Secret training camps were set up, the majority by the populist politician Tiang Sirikhanth in the northeast region of the country. There were a dozen camps in Sakhon Nakhon Province alone. Secret airfields also appeared in the northeast, where Royal Air Force and United States Army Air Force planes brought in supplies, as well as Special Operations Executive, Office of Strategic Services, and Seri Thai agents, while at the same time evacuating out prisoners of war. By early 1945, Thai air force officers were performing liaison duties with South East Asia Command in Kandy and Calcutta[25]. By 1944 it was evident that the Japanese were going to lose the war, and their behaviour in Thailand had become increasingly arrogant. Bangkok also suffered heavily from the Allied bombing raids. This, along with the economic hardship caused by the loss of Thailands rice export markets, made both the war and Pibulsongkrams regime very unpopular. In July 1944 Pibulsongkram was ousted by the Seri Thai-infiltrated government. The National Assembly reconvened and appointed the liberal lawyer Khuang Aphaiwong as Prime Minister. The new government hastily evacuated the British territories that Pibulsongkram had occupied and surreptitiously aided the Seri Thai movement, while at the same time maintaining ostensibly friendly relations with the Japanese. The Japanese surrendered on August 15, 1945. Immediately, the Allied military responsibility for Thailand fell to the British. As soon as practicable, British troops were flown in and these rapidly secured the release of surviving POWs (Prisoners of War). The British were surprised to find that the disarmament of the Japanese soldiers had already been largely completed by the Thais.  The British regarded Thailand as having been partly responsible for the immeasurable damage dealt upon the Allied cause and favored treating the kingdom as a defeated enemy. However, the Americans had no sympathy for what they considered to be British and French colonialism and supported the new government. Thailand thus received little punishment for its wartime role under Pibulsongkram. Post World War II.  Seni Pramoj became Prime Minister in 1945, and promptly restored the name Siam as a symbol of the end of Pibulsongkram s nationalist regime.  However, he found his position at the head of a cabinet packed with Pridi’s loyalists quite uncomfortable. Northeastern populist politicians like Tiang Sirikhanth and Bangkok upstarts like Sanguan Tularaksa were not the sort that the aristocratic Seni preferred to associate with. They, in turn, viewed Seni as an elitist who was entirely out of touch with Thailand’s political realities. Pridi continued to wield power behind the scenes as he had done during the Khuang government. The regent’s looming presence and overarching authority rank led the proud, thin-skinned Seni, fueling a personal animosity that would poison Thailand’s postwar politics. King Rama VIII’s mysterious death.  In December 1945, the young king Rama VIII returned to Siam from Europe, and on 9th July 1946 he was found mysteriously shot dead in the palace. Three palace servants were tried and executed for his murder, but Thai society has preferred not to dwell on the event rather than to investigate its causes.   Democratic elections were subsequently held in January 1946. These were the first elections in which political parties were legal, and Pridis Peoples Party and its allies won a majority. In March 1946 Pridi became Siams first democratically elected Prime Minister. In 1947 he agreed to hand back the French territory occupied in 1940 as the price for admission to the United Nations, the dropping of all wartime claims against Siam and a substantial package of American aid.   The king was succeeded by his younger brother Bhumibol Adulyadej. In August Pridi was forced to resign amid suspicion that he had been involved in the regicide. Without his leadership, the civilian government floundered, and in November 1947 the army, its confidence restored after the debacle of 1945, seized power. After an interim Khuang-headed government, in April 1948 the army brought Pibulsongkram back from exile and made him Prime Minister. Pridi in turn was driven into exile, eventually settling in Beijing as a guest of the Peoples Republic of China. Cold War.  Pibulsongkrams return to power coincided with the onset of the Cold War and the establishment of a Communist regime in North Vietnam. He soon won the support of the U.S., beginning a long tradition of US-backed military regime in Thailand (as the country was again renamed in July 1949, this time permanently). Once again political opponents were arrested and tried, and some were executed. During this time, several of the key figures in the wartime Free Thai (Seri Thai)  underground – including Thawin Udom, Thawi Thawethikul, Chan Bunnak, and Tiang Sirikhanth – were eliminated in extra-legal fashion by the Thai police, run by Pibulsongkram’s ruthless associate Phao Sriyanond. There were attempted counter-coups by Pridi supporters in 1948, 1949 and 1951, the second leading to heavy fighting between the army and navy before Pibulsongkram emerged victorious. In the navys 1951 attempt, popularly known as the Manhattan Coup, Pibulsongkram was nearly kille d when the ship he was held hostage aboard was bombed by the pro-government air force. In 1949 a new constitution was promulgated, creating a Senate appointed by the king (in practice, by the government). But in 1951 the regime abolished its own constitution and reverted to the constitution 1932 arrangements, effectively abolishing the National Assembly as an elected body. This provoked strong opposition from the universities and the press, and led to a further round of trials and repression. The regime was greatly helped, however, by a postwar boom which gathered pace through the 1950s, fuelled by rice exports and U.S. aid. Thailands economy began to diversify, while the population increased and urbanization expanded. New Thai leaders.  By 1955 Pibulsongkram was losing his leading position in the army to younger rivals led by Field Marshal Sarit Thanarat and General Thanom Kittikachorn. To shore up his position he restored the 1949 constitution and called for elections, which his supporters won. But the army was not prepared to give up its power. As a result, in September 1957 it demanded Pibulsongkrams resignation. When Pibulsongkram tried to have Sarit arrested, the army staged a bloodless coup on September 17, 1957, ending Pibulsongkrams career for good. Thanom became Prime Minister until 1958, then yielded his place to Sarit, the real head of the regime. Sarit held power until his death in 1963, when Thanom again took the lead. Sarit and Thanom were the first Thai leaders to have been educated entirely in Thailand, and were less influenced by European political ideas, whether fascist or democratic, than the generation of Pridi and Pibulsongkram. Rather, they were Thai traditionalists, who sought to restore the prestige of the monarchy and to maintain a society based on order, hierarchy and religion. They saw rule by the army as the best means of ensuring this, and also of defeating Communism, which they associated with Thailands traditional enemies, the Vietnamese.  King Bhumibol returned to Thailand in 1951, and his present elevated status thus has its origins in this era. The regimes of Sarit and Thanom were strongly supported by the U.S. Thailand formally became a U.S. ally in 1954 with the formation of the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO). While the war in Indochina was being fought between the Vietnamese and the French, Thailand (disliking both equally) stayed aloof, but once it became a war between the U.S. and the Vietnamese Communists, Thailand committed itself strongly to the U.S. side. Concl

What is Scotlands problem with sectarianism?

What is Scotlands problem with sectarianism? Sectarianism is a complicated concept this will be examined more in Chapter Two of this dissertation but can broadly be defined as a movement of religious protest against the social order be it state, institution or society or established religious organisation which results in voluntary separation from such environment to demonstrate the dissonance between what the group perceives as normative in matters of faith and practice and what it experiences as dominant in the social order (Hamm, 1987, p11). Even this definition may seem overly complicated at first glance, but it serves as a good starting point within the context of this dissertation and also succeeds in highlighting the precise nature of the term that will be discussed more in the following chapter. In Scotland, sectarianism has been a problem since Protestantism emerged as a religion in the fifteenth century and was later adopted by Scotland at the time a predominantly Catholic country as its national religion in 1560 . Since then there has been tensions between the two religions which has often resulted in sectarian attitudes. Today, sectarianism is currently described by the mainstream media as shameful fact of Scottish life for generations (Millie, 2009, p224). In 1999, at the Edinburgh festival the problem and its extent were exposed by Scottish composer James Macmillan during a widely reported speech in which he stated: In many walks of life in the workplace, in the professions, in academia, in the media, in politics and in sport anti-Catholicism, even when it is not particularly malign, is as endemic as it is second nature (From Bruce, 2004, p1) Sectarianism and the problems associated with have also been intrinsically linked with one of the biggest football rivalries in the country in its biggest city Glasgow between opposing fans of the two teams Rangers and Celtic. Andrew Millie (p227) reinforces this opinion, stating that: Football in Scotland, and particularly the Old Firm institutions of Glasgow Celtic and Glasgow Rangers and the matches between them are inherently defined within the sectarianism problem in Scottish society, mirroring the connection between urban disorder and largely white working class populations that characterises the discourses around the Respect and anti-social behaviour agendas However, despite the writings of authors such as Mille and the claims of Macmillan and other notable and respected sources such as award winning BBC documentary series Panorama -there has been a significant backlash to the idea that sectarianism dominates Scottish society as the media has portrayed it, pioneered largely by Steve Bruce in direct reaction to Macmillans speech. Bruce (pvii) prefaces his seminal text Sectarianism in Scotland with the following message confirming this attitude: This book was born out of the frustration with the dreadful quality of public debate over the importance of religious identity in modern Scotland. James Macmillan is a Catholic and he may be an excellent composer but neither of these facts mean that his views about the salience of sectarianism are well founded; yet, when he delivered his famous August 1999 speech, his claims that Catholics were still victims of serious discrimination were given enormous prominence in the mass media This dissertation aims to investigate the importance of sectarianism in modern Scotland examining differing viewpoints such as those presented by Bruce and Macmillan with particular focus on its importance in the footballing rivalry between Glasgow Rangers and Glasgow Celtic (which from now on will simply be referred to as Rangers and Celtic respectively). The dissertation will attempt to answer the following research questions: Would the Old Firm have the support that they do if it were not for an element of sectarianism between the two clubs? How important is the rivalry between the Old Firm to both sets of fans? Is sectarianism in Scotland a result of the Old Firm? Or is the rivalry between the Old Firm simply an outlet for tensions that run deeper through Scottish society? Is age a factor in sectarianism in football? i.e. do younger people (ages 16-20 for example) understand the religious overtones of the rivalry or do they just sing songs and repeat slurs they have heard elsewhere (usually from relatives) to fit in with older supporters who they admire? What is the psychology behind the prominence of sectarianism within the Old Firm? Is it the desire to belong to something, and similar to gang mentality in that respect? In order to answer these questions, the dissertation will undertake a variety of different research from primary and secondary sources. Following Macmillans infamous 1999 speech, the topic of sectarianism has come under intense scrutiny from a variety of academic disciplines such as politics, psychology, theology, and sociology and aspects from each of these fields will be utilised in order to help answer the research questions posed by this dissertation. Key to the dissertation will be writings from authors such as Bruce, Millie, Hamm and McDougal and their theories, thoughts and discourse will underline the basis for the development of research techniques, and these writings will be discussed at length in the literature review chapter which follows this one. The ideas will also establish the theoretical framework in which the investigation will be conducted. Both primary sources such as James Macmillans speech, government documents and the Panorama documentary on the topic and se condary sources such as the texts of Bruce and Millie will be used to establish the The main primary data collected for the investigation in order to answer the research question will be obtained from questionnaires submitted to and semi-structured interviews undertaken with members of each section of the Old Firms rivals. The questionnaires will be designed with the intention of obtaining a large amount of data from each of its subjects e.g. ethnic backgrounds, genders, religious practices and nationalities and therefore hopefully determine the characteristics of those more likely to hold sectarian values than others and the extent that it is prevalent within the two sets of supporters. It is also hoped that other Scottish football fans of different teams may be interviewed in order to gauge their feelings on the subject of the Old Firm and to see if the sectarian feelings are prevalent in football in other areas of the country or whether it is solely consigned to the city of Glasgow. Specifically another huge local derby a local derby is defined by Llamas and Wat t (p224) as a fiercely contested match between local derbies which calls forth deep emotions within supporters of both clubs (Ross, 1999, p42) between Hearts and Hibernian in Edinburgh will be examined to determine if sectarian attitudes dominate that fixture in addition to the Glasgow derby games. Finally, it may be useful to interview a psychologist to determine the characteristics associated with those people who may be associated with organisations such as the Glasgow Old Firm, in order to compare this model sectarian with the data collected from the questionnaires in an attempt to determine the true characteristics of sectarianism in modern Scotland. The dissertation will consist of six chapters. The first chapter (this one) will present an overview and introduction to the subject and propose the research questions which will be investigated during the course of the dissertation; the second chapter will consist of a literature review which will examine important theories regarding the subject; the third chapter will discuss the methodology utilised in order to attempt to answer the research questions posed in the first chapter; the fourth chapter will present the results of the of the research methodology; the fifth chapter will analyse and discuss the implications of the results and seek to determine the answers to the proposed research questions whilst the sixth and final chapter will serve the role of a conclusion chapter, discussing the results, conclusions and methodology incorporated in the dissertation, as well as any potential limitations, improvements and ideas for further study that could perhaps be investigated in the future to further corroborate the results. The next chapter will present a literature review of the topics associated with the dissertation from which the investigation will develop its theoretical framework. It seeks to examine what previous authors and academics have written about the subject and apply this knowledge to this study. CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW This chapter aims to examine what previous authors have had to say on the subject of sectarianism within Scotland and the Old Firm rivalry with the aim of basing the research model employed in this dissertation within the work on the subject that has already been completed. Research is built on the foundations of the work and findings of earlier researchers and writers in the field, so it is critical to the success of this dissertation that the theories and conventions surrounding the subject matter are fully understood and utilised to create a framework for this dissertation to work within. The general concept of sectarianism will be examined and defined briefly and then the general history of the social movement within Scotland will be looked at, before finally the more specific nature of the movement within football rivalries and the Glaswegian Old Firm mentality will be studied. This final section will form the bulk of the literature review. The majority of the literature review will focus on secondary sources i.e. texts written about the subject from prominent authors associated with it, but primary sources, such as James Macmillans speech and government documents from organisations such as the Scottish Executive, will also be referred to. It is hoped that this review will enable the dissertation to begin its data collection with a complete understanding of the problem and the concepts associated with it. It is first essential to obtain a good grasp of the term sectarianism and to understand the complications associated with it and to develop a definition for use in this dissertation. Hamm (1987, p11) argues that sectarianism has two separate meanings dependent upon whether the term is being used in a sociological or non-sociological discussion. He argues that in a non-sociological context, the term can have pejorative overtones which adherents of such a religious group do not find complimentary and can also denote a type of warfare among religious groups because of their differences. It also refers to esoteric religious beliefs that the established religion would frown upon whilst implying a querulous attitude of intolerance resulting in secession from a larger religious body. Hamm continues (p12) by explaining that the term has a slightly different meaning when used in the sociological sense and that in this context it refers to a particular type of religious organisation that stand s in protest with the idea of dissent as its main notion. He finishes his discussion of the term by offering his definition of it which begins this dissertation and will not be repeated here due to its length which even in its finality still displays the complicated nature of the term. As our study is clearly viewing the term from a sociological standpoint due to the analysis of the footballing rivalry, it is perhaps better to use the ideas from this definition as the basis for the one used in our study. This can be combined with the definitions of other thinkers on and organisations concerned with the subject to devise a suitable term explanation. The Scottish Executive (2006, p5) defines a sectarian in alignment with the Oxford English dictionary (and also notes that it is a very complicated idea) as someone who adheres in a bigoted or narrow minded fashion to a sect or body of persons who have agreed upon particular religious doctrines or practices. Bruce (p4) defines sectarianism as a widespread culture of improperly treating people because of their religion and also states (p5) that within the local context of Britain it normally refers to relations between Protestants and Catholics. A government study on the issue of sectarianism in Glasgow (NFO Social Research, 2003, p5) stated that the term is a pejorative term to describe division bigotry, and discrimination based upon religion, which within the context of Glasgow refers to the conflict between Catholics and Protestants. These are all recent definitions of the term associated with the problem discussed in this dissertation so it makes sense to utilise the definition pr ovided by the NFO Social Research which amalgamates the main points from the other two and is very relevant to this study. It is important to remember though, as per Hamms description of the term, that the reality of the concept is not as simple as this basic definition and its connotations can be a lot more far reaching than those definitions discussed here pertaining specifically to Scotland and the problems surrounding the issue within the country. The problem has been particularly huge in Scotland and in particular Glasgow, with the national television programme Panorama casually stating in 2005 that sectarianism and religious bigotry have long been accepted as part of a way of life in Scotland. The fact that the issue is covered on the national medias flagship documentary programme illustrates the extent of the problem and how large it has become. Before examining the specifics of how sectarianism is rooted in the footballing rivalry of the city, it is first important to understand its origins and development; this will then hopefully aid in discovering an explanation for why it has become so entrenched in and associated with the Old Firm. As mentioned in the introduction, the problem has its origins in the sixteenth century and Scotlands adoption of Protestantism as its national religion despite the majority of the population being of the Catholic persuasion. Sectarian tensions really developed in the 19th century though as a result of the immigration of those who fled Ireland (a traditionally Catholic country) and sought to live and work in Ireland (History of Sectarianism, 2010). Growing urban cities and industries in Scotland offered those Irish with few prospects in wake of the famine a chance to work and provide money for their family and so there was a mass influx during this period. As occurs with many mass displacements of population from a homeland into a new environment, social tensions between the now dominant Protestant demographic and the incoming Irish Catholic population began to emerge and this resulted in the emergence of pockets of Irish populated area. Of particular importance to this study was the manifestation of an Irish diaspora in the poor East End of Glasgow. This led to increased tensions within the city as the Irish and Scottish clashed over job and housing opportunities and it was these pressures that led to the initial development of sectarian attitudes in Glasgow and the rest of Scotland, albeit mainly concentrated in Glasgow. Tensions were at their worst during the inter-war years of 1918 1939 and were exemplified by the existence of a national depression with huge levels of unemployment and fierce competition inflaming an already volatile situation (20th Century Scotland, 2001). This led to ruthless discrimination with sectarian overtones in the labour market, with Orange and Masonic lodges often discriminating against Catholic workers in favour of their Protestant counterparts. This was actively encouraged by the Protestant church within Scotland too. The divide between the two religions spread to become apparent in all aspects of life, with children often attending separate schools based upon religion, different religions lived in different parts of the city, and of course the emergence of the two separate football teams within the city and the great rivalry associated with this. Although the sectarian element has declined since this peak period, it is still perceived as having a major influence on Sc ottish society, as can be seen by the impact of James Macmillans speech and the discourse on the subject it has spurred. Now that a basic understanding of the sectarian problem in Scotland has been achieved it is now necessary to look at the specifics of the concept within the framework of the Old Firm rivalry. Celtic football club was founded in 1888 as a direct focal point for the Irish Catholic immigrant community that had established itself in Glasgows east end (History of Sectarianism) by Brother Walfrid, and even at this early point the rivalry was intense with Walfrid stating his main intention with the foundation of the club was to keep the poor free from the temptations of Protestant soup kitchens and to provide a leisure activity that would save them from apostasy (Armstrong Giullianotti, 2001, p24). Following this declaration of religious intent from the newly formed club and its rapid success in the league Celtic won four league championships over the period 1893-8 Rangers took it upon themselves to become the home grown team to challenge most keenly and successfully the Irishmen of Celt ic. Home grown meant Protestant just as Irish was synonymous with Catholic (Armstrong and Giullianotti, p24). From this point the rivalry between the two clubs progressed alongside their successes and failures, as did the sectarian attitudes associated with both sets of supporters. In the early 1900s, Catholic players began to be asked to leave Rangers upon disclosing their religion, and it was around 1912 that the famous Rangers club policy of not signing Catholic players began to be enforced. Bad blood between the two clubs as a result of sectarian attitudes was registered as early as 1896, but Armstrong and Giullianotti (p25) argue that it was encouraged by management as sectarianism and its accompanying violence was a crowd puller. The anti-Catholic policy was enforced up until the 1980s and meant that Rangers missed out on great players such as Kenny Dalglish and Jim Leighton because of their stubbornness, although they finally relented on the policy when signing Mo Johnston in 1989. Tensions between the two sets of supporters and Protestants and Catholics in general had cooled since their peak during the inter war years too. However, there is still some element of sectarianism present in the support of both teams. It is often cited that sectarian attitudes within the Old Firm are not as extreme as they once were but Callum G. Brown (1997 p196) observes that Scottish national identity has never fully integrated Catholic and Protestant, even in the late twentieth century there is evidence of a religious based ethnic division which confounds a common identity. Brown continues (p198) by stating that Rangers fans tend to identify with Britain and its symbols (such as the union flag) as an act of solidarity with Northern Ireland loyalists; whereas Celtic supporters associate poorly with British symbols of identity and relate strongly with the Irish Republic. This is illustrative of the divide that exists between the two sets of supporters and that there is still a problem between the two. Horne (1995, p10) back this view up, questioning how much meaning there is to the term sectarian in a society with widespread social and cultural interaction and a great deal of intermarriage. However, he does impo rtantly note that Sectarianism is ritualistically conveyed in some football fanzines and football fans still sing sectarian songs and display different symbols of allegiance, but without it being of major significance to the rest of Scotland. It is further reinforced by the history of sectarianism which states that the historical links of some clubs and the traditional ethnic and religious makeup of their supporters have led to them being held as symbols of religious, cultural and political beliefs. Supporters often use chants, songs or banners on match days to express abuse or support towards the Catholic or Protestant faiths or to promote their support for Northern Irish based terrorist groups such as the IRA and UVF. This clearly adds an extra sectarian dimension to the nature of the rivalry that exists between the two sides of the Old Firm; even despite comments that it is not now as fierce as it has been in the past there is clearly still an element of sectarianism involved in the support of each club. The question this dissertation needs to answer though is how inherent and important this is to the supporters of each club. Recent research into the subject is available, due in part to James Macmillans recent speech which served to draw attention to these divisions and provoke discourse on it amongst academic communities. A NFO social research study commissioned in 2003 as a direct result of James Macmillans comments at the Edinburgh festival over the issue of sectarianism within football is perhaps a good starting point for examining the facts regarding the issue in modern Scotland. Essentially, the study found (NFO Social Research, 2003, p57) that the residents of Glasgow felt that sectarianism was still relatively common within the city, and that this mainly took the form of making sectarian jokes with friends, using sectarian terms to describe people, sectarian vandalism, violence, threats and intimidation or harassment were either very or quite common in Glasgow with 66% stating that they felt that sectarian violence occurred regularly within the city. However, interestingly, when questioned about whether they had been a victim of a sectarian attack in the past five years, less than 1% of respondents claimed that they had. The difference between the perception and the reality of the situation can clearly be seen here. This is a viewpoint that is backed up by Bruce (pvii) who states that a number of violent attacks in Glasgow are misreported as sectarian violence due to the medias current obsession with it. Again, this brings into debate the question of how serious the sectarian problem is in Glasgow, and also what specifically defines sectarianism and whether or not it needs to be extreme in its nature to be classified as sectarianism. The Scottish Executive (p5) expands upon this question by stating that within football, it is the actions and words of individuals rather than their beliefs as such that people should be concerned with. This is an important sentence, as it exemplifies the fact that perhaps people who participate in sectarianism within football are not always serious sectarians themselves but are often simply caught up in the atmosphere and gang mentality of the supporters and footballing legacy that they find themselves immersed in as a supporter. The history of sectarianism reinforces this view and the dangers that can be associated with the allowance of so-called casual racism by stating that offensive sectarian language is still used in Scotland on a daily basis with abusive terms such as Hun and Orange bastard being used negatively against Protestants (or those perceived to be) and others such as Fenian and Tim used negatively against Catholics (or those perceived to be). This reinforces religious and racial stereotypes as well as fuelling the divisions and conflict between the denominations and people of no religious denomination. Children commonly use words without any knowledge of their meaning, but with an understanding that these words are a means by which to insult others. The dissertation will attempt to determine the extent of this actual sectarianism during the data collection section of the dissertation and the questionnaire will be designed specifically with this as one of the goals in mind. Liam McDougal (2006) highlights the problems that are associated with defining sectarianism and how this can be applied to the Glaswegian example of the Old Firm in his 2006 article which challenges many of the assumptions made by First Minister at the time Jack McConnell in his high profile attempt to eradicate Scotlands shame of bigotry through an extended awareness campaign. In his article, he states that many supporters of both Rangers and Celtic feel that sectarianism has been all but eradicated within the rivalry and that language highlighted by the government as bigoted is often used regularly in the workplace or other areas of socialising and that it was merely seen as a joke, banter or harmless fun. McDougal cites the example of being called a Fernian or Proddy bastard by colleagues or using the terms themselves was accepted as simply being a Rangers or Celtic fan. He expands upon this by stating that fans view songs such as Billy Boys, the Fields of Athenry and the Sash so ngs traditionally sung by Rangers fans that have been criticised by UEFA and the Scottish Executive for being sectarian are not viewed by either set of supporters as sectarian: people are not bigots because they are singing a certain song they are simply singing along to the song. Critically, McDougal explains that the Executive and UEFA were not being specific enough in their criticism of sectarianism and essentially allowing fans to make their own minds up as to what constituted being sectarian or not hence their decision to decide that many of their songs were not actually sectarian. This highlights the confusion associated with the term again, and this is a factor that the dissertation needs to be aware of when conducting and constructing its questionnaires and analysis, as one persons sectarianism can quite clearly be labelled another mans harmless fun. This can perhaps be accounted for by the inclusion of questionnaires to other football fans asking their feelings on the Old Firm, and through semi structured interviews with psychologist and members of the Old Firm and other football supporters associations. This will be discussed more during the methodology chapter of the dissertation. Another important aspect of his article that is particularly importa nt to this dissertation is the idea that sectarianism is actually not that prevalent in the Old Firm rivalry anymore again this is an idea that will need to be implemented in the design of the questionnaires that will be distributed during the course of this investigation. Promisingly though, McDougals findings were from a study similar to this dissertation in which fans from both sides of the Old Firm were questioned about their views towards sectarianism by University of Edinburgh fellow Dr. Chris McVittie and the success of that research and the NFO social research paper implies that there will be hopefully be similar level of achievement from this study as it will be based on a similar methodology. The insights into footballing mentality and the statistics associated with both sets of supporters are probably the most useful and interesting part of the NFO social research paper in relation to this dissertation though. The statistics (p10) reinforce the stereotypes about each group of supporters, with 74% of those who support Celtic claiming to be Catholic and 67% of those that support Rangers claiming to be Protestant. Again, even if sectarianism is not as prevalent as it once was, these statistics clearly encapsulate that religion still plays a huge part in the Old Firm derby. However, more interesting are some of the comments that emerged from semi-structured interviews with those questioned such as: A lot of violence kicks off because of sectarianism yet a lot of people dont even know what its about! They are just into it for Celtic,Rangers (p11), and It has nothing to do with Catholics and Protestants, its the new religion of Celtic and Rangers (p10). This was later summaris ed in the studies closing arguments by the line: for some the role of football has become so significant that it was actually felt to have replaced religion as the source and focus of sectarian attitudes and behaviour (p56). This idea is further exemplified by the Scottish Executive (p5) who state that the problems of sectarianism exist within the divide between club supporters claiming to be attached to the Protestant and Catholic groups. Again, the use of the word claiming suggests that the sectarianism aspect of the divide is often only implemented as an excuse by those supporters who seek to participate in violence and/or slurs. This is an important aspect of this dissertation and one that will attempt to be examined thoroughly through its course. Importantly, the NFO survey also found that there was no consensus on whether football violence is essentially sectarian in nature, or just simply reminiscent of mindless football hooliganism that exists everywhere. Another important i nterview quote was that the real problem is not sectarianism, but drink. These are both important ideas that need to be examined and discussed during the course of this dissertation. This literature review has enabled the study to gain an insight into the history and complications of the term sectarianism, the application of it in Scotland and to the Old Firm, the complications of the term and its application to the Old Firm in modern Scotland and most importantly to lay the foundations for its own data collection methodology through the examination of previous studies and key theories regarding the topic. The next chapter will now discuss the methodology employed for this dissertations data collection. CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY This chapter seeks to discuss and explain the research and data collection methods employed in this dissertation in order to answer the research questions posed in the introductory chapter. It also attempts to provide justification for the methodology used this is important as it gives the findings and recommendations of the dissertation validity and reliability, which are necessary for it be taken seriously in the academic domain. The chapter also discusses the sampling techniques used in the research, the research instruments that were used, the research process, the administration of questionnaires, how data was analysed and what was done to ensure its validity and reliability. The chapter also presents the limitations of the study. First, it is necessary to decide upon a course of research design. Research design illustrates how the data collection has been planned. Essentially, there are two types of research: qualitative and quantitative. This dissertation intends to utilise the questionnaire as the main form of investigative technique in its methodology. The literature review previously conducted in the last chapter will serve as the basis of knowledge relating to the data collection and construction of the questionnaire and the areas of sectarianism that need to be investigated. The questionnaire was chosen as the method of data collection as it was decided that